What makes aflatoxin

Published online Jan Dipendra K. Tapan K. Sang G. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Mohanta, moc. Kang, rk. This article was submitted to Microbiotechnology, Ecotoxicology and Bioremediation, a section of the journal Frontiers in Microbiology.

Received Oct 7; Accepted Dec The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author s or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice.

No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract The aflatoxin producing fungi, Aspergillus spp. Keywords: aflatoxins, health issues, Aspergillus sp. Introduction Aflatoxins are one of the highly toxic secondary metabolites derived from polyketides produced by fungal species such as Aspergillus flavus, A.

Open in a separate window. Outbreaks Due to Aflatoxins In , a major outbreak of hepatitis due to aflatoxin was reported in the states of Gujrat and Rajasthan in India, resulting in an estimated deaths Krishnamachari et al. Major Source of Aflatoxin The major sources of aflatoxins are fungi such as A. Aspergillus spp.

Aflatoxin AFT Among the mycotoxins affecting food and feed, aflatoxin is the major one in food that ultimately harms human and animal health Boutrif, Chemistry and Biosynthesis of Aflatoxins Chemically, aflatoxins AFTs are difuranocoumarin derivatives in which a bifuran group is attached at one side of the coumarin nucleus, while a pentanone ring is attached to the other side in the case of the AFTs and AFTs-B series, or a six-membered lactone ring is attached in the AFTs-G series Bennett and Klich, ; Nakai et al.

Gene Responsible for Aflatoxin Production Various genes and their enzymes are involved in the production of sterigmatocystin ST dihydrosterigmatocystin DHST , which are the penultimate precursors of aflatoxins Cole and Cox, Occurrence in Food Aflatoxins are found in various cereals, oilseeds, spices, and nuts Lancaster et al.

Effects on Agriculture and Food Mycotoxins, including aflatoxin, have affected most crops grown worldwide; however, the extent of aflatoxin toxicity varies according to the commodities Abbas et al. Effects of Processing on Aflatoxin Techniques to eliminate aflatoxin may be either physical or chemical methods.

Effects of Environmental Temperature on Aflatoxin Production Climate change plays a major role in production of aflatoxin from Aspergillus in food crops Paterson and Lima, , ; Magan et al. Detection Techniques The detection and quantification of aflatoxin in food and feed is a very important aspect for the safety concerns.

Degradation Kinetics Various treatments including chemical, physical, and biological methods are routinely utilized for effective degradation, mitigation and management of aflatoxin Shcherbakova et al. Management and Control Strategies The biocontrol principle of competitive exclusion of toxigenic strains of A. Conclusion Aflatoxins are a major source of disease outbreaks due to a lack of knowledge and consumption of contaminated food and feed worldwide.

Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Abbas H. An overview of mycotoxin contamination in foods and its implications for human health.

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If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and Permissions. Kumar, A. Aflatoxin contamination in food crops: causes, detection, and management: a review. Food Prod Process and Nutr 3, 17 Download citation. Received : 10 July Accepted : 26 May Published : 15 July Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search all BMC articles Search. Download PDF. Abstract Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by several fungal species and molds.

Introduction Aflatoxin contamination in crops is a global threat that compromises the safety of food, feed, and also influences the agricultural economy and crop-dependent small scale industries.

Favorable conditions for aflatoxin contamination Mycotoxins production depends on the food source, enzymes, and various environmental factors.

The factors are summarized as: Physical factors Physical factors like pH, light, moisture, temperature, water, relative humidity, and atmospheric gases are responsible for aflatoxin contamination.

Nutritional factors Aflatoxin productions are also widely affected by the substrate and various nutritional factors such as carbon, amino acids, nitrogen, lipids, and few trace elements. Biological factors Biological factors include fungal species, weeds, and insect injuries. Aflatoxins contamination in crop plants Aflatoxin contamination occurs in a wide range of regional crops and food commodities.

Table 1 List of recent studies showing the mycotoxin contamination in different food crops Full size table.

Availability of data and materials Not applicable. References Aiko, V. Google Scholar Al-Wadai, A. Google Scholar Aquino, S. Google Scholar Awuah, R. Article Google Scholar Bedi, P. Article Google Scholar Bumbangi, N. Google Scholar Chala, A. Google Scholar Denissenko, M. Google Scholar Eshelli, M. Google Scholar Jard, G. Google Scholar Karlovsky, P. Article Google Scholar Kinyungu, S. Google Scholar Kos, J. Article Google Scholar Lai, X. Article Google Scholar Leong, Y.

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Evaluation of the effects of AFT-B 1 on splenic lymphocyte phenotypes and inflammatory cytokine expression in male F rats have been studied Qian et al. These findings indicate that frequent AFT-B 1 exposure accelerates inflammatory responses via regulation of cytokine gene expression. Furthermore, Mehrzad et al. Aflatoxins cause reduced efficiency of immunization in children that lead to enhanced risk of infections Hendrickse, The hepatocarcinogenicity of aflatoxins is mainly due to the lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage to DNA Verma, AFTs-B 1 in the liver is activated by cytochrome p enzymes, which are converted to AFTs-B, 9-epoxide, which is responsible for carcinogenic effects in the kidney Massey et al.

Among all major mycotoxins, aflatoxins create a high risk in dairy because of the presence of their derivative, AFTs-M 1 , in milk, posing a potential health hazard for human consumption Van Egmond, ; Wood, AFTs-B 1 is rapidly absorbed in the digestive tract and metabolized by the liver, which converts it to AFT-M 1 for subsequent secretion in milk and urine Veldman et al.

The other effects of AFTs-M 1 include liver damage, decreased milk production, immunity suppression and reduced oxygen supply to tissues due to anemia Aydin et al. Several studies have shown the detrimental effects of aflatoxins exposure on the liver Sharmila Banu et al.

It has been found that aflatoxin presences in post-mortem brain tissue Oyelami et al. The effects of aflatoxin on brain chemistry have been reviewed in details by Bbosa et al. Furthermore, few reports have described the effects of AFTs-B 1 administration on the structure of the rodent central nervous system Laag and Abdel Aziz, Limited doses are not harmful to humans or animals; however, the doses that do cause-effects diverse among Aflatoxin groups.

The expression of aflatoxin toxicity is regulated by factors such as age, sex, species, and status of nutrition of infected animals Williams et al. The symptoms of acute aflatoxicosis include oedema, haemorrhagic necrosis of the liver and profound lethargy, while the chronic effects are immune suppression, growth retardation, and cancer Gong et al. Techniques to eliminate aflatoxin may be either physical or chemical methods. The fate of aflatoxin varies with type of heat treatment e. Awasthi et al.

The decrease in aflatoxin content depends on the time and temperature combination. When hydroxide 0. Similar results were reported by Cheftel for the extrusion cooking of peanut meal. Climate change plays a major role in production of aflatoxin from Aspergillus in food crops Paterson and Lima, , ; Magan et al.

Climate change affects the interactions between different mycotoxigenic species and the toxins produced by them in foods and feeds Magan et al. Changes in environmental temperature influence the expression levels of regulatory genes aflR and aflS and aflatoxin production in A.

A good correlation between the expression of an early structural gene aflD and AFB1 has been reported by Abdel-Hadi et al. The interactions between water activity and temperature have prominent effect on Aspergillus spp.

According to Gallo et al. The detection and quantification of aflatoxin in food and feed is a very important aspect for the safety concerns. Aflatoxins are usually detected and identified according to their absorption and emission spectra, with peak absorbance occurring at nm. B toxins exhibit blue fluorescence at nm, while G toxins show green fluorescence at nm under UV irradiation. This florescence phenomenon is widely accepted for aflatoxins. Thin layer chromatography TLC is among one of the oldest techniques used for aflatoxin detection Fallah et al.

Room temperature phosphorescence RTP in aflatoxigenic strains grown on media is commonly used in food mycology. Aflatoxins immobilized on resin beads can induce RTP in the presence or absence of oxygen and heavy atoms Costa-Fernandez and Sanz-Medel, and also have high sensitivity and specificity Li et al. Moreover, several biosensors and immunoassays have been developed to detect ultra-traces of aflatoxins to ensure the food safety.

Various treatments including chemical, physical, and biological methods are routinely utilized for effective degradation, mitigation and management of aflatoxin Shcherbakova et al. The degradation of aflatoxin followed first order kinetic equation. However, microbial and enzymatic degradation is preferred for the biodegradation of aflatoxin due to its eco-friendly nature Agriopoulou et al.

Rhodococcus species are able to degrade aflatoxins Teniola et al. Fungi such as Pleurotus ostreatus, Trametes versicolor, Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans, S. Zhao et al. Moreover, the recombinant laccase produced by A. The biocontrol principle of competitive exclusion of toxigenic strains of A.

The use of biocontrol agents such as Bacillus subtilis , Lactobacillus spp. Several strains of B. Biological control of aflatoxin production in crops in the US has been approved by the Environmental Protection Agency and two commercial products based on atoxigenic A. Good agricultural practices GAPs also help control the toxins to a larger extent, such as timely planting, providing adequate plant nutrition, controlling weeds, and crop rotation, which effectively control A.

Use of inbred maize lines resistant to aflatoxin has also been employed. Potential biochemical markers and genes for resistance in maize against Aspergillus could also be utilized Chen et al. Additionally, biotechnological approaches have been reviewed for aflatoxin management strategies Yu, Advances in genomic technology based research and decoding of the A. In addition, Wu suggested that aflatoxin accumulation can be reduced by utilizing transgenic Bt maize with insect resistance traits as the wounding caused by insects helps penetrate the Aspergillus in kernels.

Aflatoxins are a major source of disease outbreaks due to a lack of knowledge and consumption of contaminated food and feed worldwide. Excessive levels of aflatoxins in food of non-industrialized countries are of major concern.

Several effective physical, chemical, biological, and genetic engineering techniques have been employed for the mitigation, effective control and management of aflatoxins in food. Post-harvest treatments to remove aflatoxins such as alkalization, ammonization, and heat or gamma radiation are not generally used by farmers. However, some of the microorganisms naturally present in soil have the ability to degrade and reduce the aflatoxin contamination in different types of agricultural produce.

Therefore, methods of using these organisms to reduce aflatoxin are currently being focused on. Moreover, application of genetic recombination in A. PK and DM designed and conceived the experiments and wrote the manuscript.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Abbas, H. An overview of mycotoxin contamination in foods and its implications for human health. Toxin Rev. Biocontrol of aflatoxin in corn by inoculation with non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus isolates.

Biocontrol Sci. Abdel-Hadi, A. Temporal monitoring of the nor-1 aflD gene of Aspergillus flavus in relation to aflatoxin B1 production during storage of peanuts under different environmental conditions.

Abdel-Wahhab, M. Zizyphus spina-christi extract protects against aflatoxin B1-intitiated hepatic carcinogenicity. PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. Agnes, V. Pale vacuolated epithelial cells in epididymis of aflatoxin-treated mice. Reproduction , — Agriopoulou, S. Food Control 61, — Akande, K. Nutritional and health implications of mycotoxin in animal feed.

Alberts, J. Degradation of aflatoxin B1 by fungal laccase enzymes. Food Microbiol. Amaike, S. Aspergillus flavus.

Andrade, P. A , 61— Anjaiah, V. Evaluation of bacteria and Trichoderma for biocontrol of pre-harvest seed infection by Aspergillus flavus in groundnut. Ashworth, L. Infection of cotton by Aspergillus flavus : epidemiology of the disease.

Stored Prod. Astoreca, A. Ochratoxin A production in relation to ecophysiological factors by Aspergillus section Nigri strains isolated from different substrates in Argentina. Total Environ. Water activity and temperature effects on growth of Aspergillus niger , A. Carbonarius isolated from different substrates in Argentina. Awasthi, V. Contaminants in milk and impact of heating: an assessment study.

Indian J. Public Health 56, 95— Aydin, A. Total aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A levels in Turkish wheat flour. Food Drug Anal. Google Scholar. Azziz-Baumgartner, E. Case—control study of an acute aflatoxicosis outbreak, Kenya, Health Perspect. Bankole, S. Food Control 21, — Bbosa, G. Razzaghi-Abyaneh Rijeka: InTech , — Bennett, J. Bhatnagar, D. Molecular genetic analysis and regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Bhatt, R. Food toxins and disease outbreaks in India. Arogya J. Health Sci.

Boutrif, E. Prevention of aflatoxin in pistachios. Food Nutr. Adolescents and Young Adults with Cancer. Emotional Support for Young People with Cancer. Cancers by Body Location. Late Effects of Childhood Cancer Treatment. Pediatric Supportive Care. Rare Cancers of Childhood Treatment. Childhood Cancer Genomics. Study Findings. Metastatic Cancer Research. Intramural Research.

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